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19.TCA basic 图 图 TCA gives -2H2O +GTP +FADH2 +2CO2 +3NADH + 3H+ 第0步 +CO2 +NADH +H+ Combining glycolysis and the TCA cycle gives 注意一个glycose进行一次glycolysis和两次TCA 理论上 1 * glycose → 38 * ATP All six carbons of glucose are released as CO2 4 molecules of ATP are formed in substrate-level phosphorylation glycolysis + TCA 产生了 10 * NADH 与 2 * FADH2 in electron transport and oxidative phosphorylation NADH → 3 ATP FADH2 → 2 ATP 但是细胞质基质产生的NADH不一定进入电子传递链 steps step0 - Oxidative Decarboxylati ...

3.Thermodynamics of Biological Systems Basic Thermodynamic Concepts 系统 分为三类 Living things are typically open systems that exchange matter (nutrients and waste products) and energy (heat from metabolism) with their surroundings. The Second Law and Entropy entropy, S, which is a measure of disorder and randomness in the system (or the surroundings) An organized or ordered state is a low-entropy state, whereas a disordered state is a high-entropy state. When a thermodynamic system undergoes a ...

131415.enzyme Kinetics and Specificity features catalytic power 催化能力 Enzymes display enormous catalytic power, accelerating reaction rates as much as 10^6 over uncatalyzed levels enzymes accomplish these astounding feats in dilute缓冲 aqueous solutions under mild conditions of temperature and pH The relative catalytic power of an enzyme is defined as the ratio of the catalyzed rate to the uncatalyzed rate of reaction specificity 特异性 A given enzyme is very specific, both in the substrates 底物 , r ...

8.lipids 基础 Lipids are a class of biological molecules defined by low solubility in water and high solubility in nonpolar solvents. 脂质是一类生物分子，其定义为在水中溶解度低，而在非极性溶剂中溶解度高 As molecules that are largely hydrocarbon 烃 in nature, lipids represent highly reduced forms of carbon and,upon oxidation in metabolism, yield large amounts of energy. 由于脂质本质上多为烃类分子，属于碳的高度还原形式，因此在代谢过程中发生氧化时，会产生大量能量 Lipids are thus the molecules of choice for metabolic energy storage. The lipids found in biological systems are ei ...

0.酶名称总结 kinase 激酶, 从ATP中转移phosphate给底物A phosphatase 磷酸酶, 磷酸酶是催化将底物A-phosphate变成A和磷酸的分解过程, 与kinase作用相反 phosphorylase 磷酸化酶, 作用机理类似水解酶,可以将A-B化合物分解为AOH和B-phosphate, 可以无机酸磷酸作为磷酸基团供体 isomerase 异构酶 aldolase 醛缩酶, 一种裂解酶 dehydrogenase 脱氢酶, 催化氧化还原, A + NAD⁺/NADP⁺ → A + NADH/NADPH + H⁺ mutase 变位酶, applied to enzymes that catalyze migration of a functional group within a substrate molecule enolase 烯醇酶 lipase 脂肪酶 carboxylase 羧化酶，底物 + CO₂ + ATP → 羧化产物 + ADP + Pi carboxykinase 羧化激酶，糖异生，草酰乙酸 + GTP → 磷酸烯醇式丙酮酸 + ...

介绍 Cells → Tissues → Organs → Systems Tissues epithelial tissue muscle tissue nerve tissue connective tissue About 60% of the adult human body is fluid intracellular fluid 2/3 of this fluid is inside the cells extracellular fluid 1/3 is outside the cells namely the internal environment Homeostasis内稳态 maintenance of a nearly constant internal environment (pH, temp., osmotic pressure, ions and etc.) Regulation of body functions Neural regulation the nervous system regulates body functio ...

呼吸系统 Anatomy of the respiratory system 图 The upper respiratory tract nose, nasal cavity, pharynx 鼻子、鼻腔、咽部 The lower respiratory tract larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs 喉、气管、支气管、肺 Lungs The right lung has 3 lobes，the left lung has 2 lobes Pleura胸膜 Pleura = visceral pleura (胸膜脏层) + parietal pleura (胸膜壁层) The visceral pleura covers the surface of the lung and extends into the fissures裂缝 between lobes The parietal pleura adheres附着 to the mediastinum (纵隔), the rib cage and the diaphragm ...

上半 Anatomy of the heart 心脏解剖学 location & size The heart lies between the two lungs, just above the diaphragm隔膜 From child to adult, the heart is roughly the same size as the fist weight about 300g The pericardium心包 and heart wall peri- 外围的 图 The heart is enclosed in a double-walled sac called the pericardium The pericardium protects the heart, and allows it to beat with minimal friction The heart wall consists of 3 layers: epicardium (心外膜), myocardium (心肌层) and endocardium (心内膜) The m ...

上篇：Overview Organization of the nervous system central nervous system brain cerebrum cerebellum brainstem Brainstem (脑干) = midbrain (中脑) + pons (脑桥) + medulla (延髓) spinal cord peripheral nervous system 12 pairs of cranial颅 nerves 31 pairs of spinal脊髓 nerves ENS enteric肠 nervous system 叫system表示可以独立工作，有反射弧 sensory receptors functions→sensory (input)，integrative (process)，motor (output Histology of nervous tissue neurons 结构 cell body (胞体) inside the CNS, nucleus (核) 在中枢神经系统中叫神 ...

细胞功能 Transmembrane transport Passive transport Simple diffusion non-polar (lipid-soluble) molecules / small polar molecules without charges high → low 不消耗ATP Facilitated diffusion lipid-insoluble molecules high → low 不消耗ATP channels 4 type Voltage-gated ion channel Ligand-gated ion channel Mechanically-gated ion channel Water channel- aquaporin 2 property ion selectivity gating carriers conformational change saturation Active transport Primary active transport Consume ...